Development of Reality TV Genre

growing of naturalism TV GenreHow atomic number 18 macrocosm TV aims constructed and how do they challenge ideas near the idiot box listening?Everyone has to have come crosswise a earth tv point, at least once opus ceremonial occasion tv set, since the musical musical style has become one of the just about frequent musical musical genres of boob tube computer programming in our contemporary society and keeps on becoming to a greater extent and more enjoyed by slew worldwide. Ever since this, shargonably new, television set genre has appe atomic number 18d a lot of changes in the shipway of sport, television curriculum constructions and hearing studies have been noticed. That is why some(prenominal) studies have been contacted near the genre, in company to better name and explain it, in relation to the hearing and different media theories. The views around it amongst scholars though, be divided, between the ones who support the genre and othe rs who consider it to be voyeuristic, cheap, sensational television (Hill, 2005). Regard slight of the two opinions, the macrocosm genre becoming one of the most discussed subjects in media studies is a fact and in this essay I will try, found on some(prenominal) academics research, to identify what the humanity genre is, how it was developed through the years, from what programmes it has originated, which subgenres it has produced and how those subgenres influence the television programme production to daylight and lowestly, how the verity genres concepts challenge several ideas about the reference reception, taking into consideration the latters drumhead of view.It is undeniable that television has a big impact on the ways populate sp closing curtain their free time and separately genre of television programmes has its avouch impact on earshots and society, with probably the mankind genre be the most controversial one. Due to several studies around and different op inions about the genre there is no specific definition about it. It is broadly thought to be the genre which documents un indite, genuinely- behavior impersonateuations of ordinary people (Hill, 2005). The genre is more centeringed on drama and entertainment contexts rather than simply educating the audience, since it usually encompasses unscripted dramas, posts, tasks and just about any aspirations that prepare it more sportsman to watch. humans television genre first appeared during the 1950s as a new form of factual television and social record for post-war observers, based on Allen Funds work in 1947, which was a candor television series bordered Candid Camera focused on mysterious cameras that filmed ordinary people go about unusual situations (similar to the latter estimable for Laughs Gags). Even though some people viewed this technique as an usurpation of privacy, others viewed it as a valuable educational visual record (Murray and Ouellette, 2004) and thus t he genre continued to develop. The growth of tabloid journalism, documentary television and popular entertainment during the 1980s, influenced the reality genre make up more, resulting in new loanblend programming, developing reality television as we know it today (Hill, 2005).Studies around reality television have become an important concept in media research, since the ways in which the genre works influence new types of audience gratifications, as well as media effects, due to the way they are constructed. Usually, reality television represents are directed by segment producers or invoice editors, who assemble storyboards and shooting scripts to make the demos happen. Since these people are not declare by the Writers Guild of America as normal writers, they cost less than what a drama writer would cost (Hill, 2005). Additionally, since no actors or sets are required for reality specifys to be made, the cost of production is much cheaper than the volume of other television genres, which explains why they are so famous and massively produced. In order for a reality show to be produced and lastly triumphful though, certain aspects need to be taken into consideration. People operate to get easily bored of a television programme and provide easily switch off their television or change to other channel. In order to keep them interested, reality shows need to have extremely marketable concepts and subjects to gain their audiences attention. Catchy titles that provoke conversations and suffer catch-phrases, which tell you exactly what to expect to watch but at the aforesaid(prenominal) time intrigue your curiosity and imagination, are usual characteristics of much(prenominal) shows. truthfulness television shows in any case need to provide exactly what their name suggests, reality. Focusing more on storylines containing elements of competition, potential for conflict, tasks, winning prizes, reality show producers aim to capture real- vivification situations about ordinary people, exactly how they happen in front of the camera. Usually, in every reality show there is a host who or a voiceover that explains to the audience what is going on, who they are watching and what they will be doing during the show. In order to convince the audience that what they are watching is real and unscripted, they attempt to stimulate real life situations and reactions from the people who classicipate in the shows and by surveillance with cameras, they make the private life visible to everyone. The idea of non-actors or professionals participating in to each one show and the non-scripted presentation of events make reality programmes an unpredictable source of entertainment for the audience and the idea is deepend by the fact that people look standardized they are active participants in these situations, removing them somehow from being a motionless audience. One of our eras most popular reality show has been the singing competition series Idols ( excessively known as Superstar), which first aerial in the UK in 2001. Equipped with all the basic reality show elements, such as mass auditioning of ordinary, non-famous people, audience participation with people bring their favourite artists from home, unscripted dialogs and reactions by the participants, as well as the opinion panel, live performances, backstage drama and marketable concepts, the show has come crossways broad success worldwide. The main purpose of the programme is to discover the idol in each of its series, with that idol being the most talented vocalizer who competes in the show. Auditions are held and the judges choose the participants, who eventually compete with each other during live performances and the winner is announced after only two singers are left in the show and the one with the most votes, from the audience and the judges, wins a money prize and a recording contract.Even though the reality formats share some common elements, the ge nre in popular is made up of various diverse and distinctive subgenres that resulted from the mixture and crossing of other prior, original programmes and it is this hybridization of no-hit genres that gives reality television its secure market values. Influenced by genres such as soap opera, documentary, sports or competition shows, reality genre is a very broad category and thusly it is quite hard to understand reality television without considering its place at heart the context of other types of audio-visual documentation (Hill, 2005). As a result, there are several subgenres of reality television programmes such as, docu-dramas, game shows, dating-based competitions, self-improvement /makeover shows, privy camera shows or talk shows.Docu-soaps or fly-on-the-wall documentaries are the combination of the traditionalistic observational documentary television with soap opera and they cook a fictional setting to represent a series of events, with cameras set up to follow un scripted situations as they happen. The film crew is not seen or acknowledged by the reality stars and contrawise to traditional documentaries, which are often busy to one chronological succession, docu-soaps span as a series of episodes, edit and scripted to follow normal peoples lives. A British physical exertion of a docu-soap, is the fly-on-the-wall documentary series called Airport, which was aired between 1996 and 2008, based at the London Heathrow Airport. The series followed the daily activities of passengers and staff of the airport. The dramatic behind the scenes spot and some memorable recurring characters, gave the show its docu-soaps feel. Make over shows such as Extreme Makeover, feature real people who present their own situations and life stories to explain why they are in need of a self-transformation. Extreme Makeover aired between 2002 and 2007 in the USA, with people volunteering to receive make love makeovers, including plastic surgery, exercise programme s, hairdressing and wardrobe renovation by debaucher experts. Screened in three major parts before, during and after the makeover shows the likes of that focus on beauty and outer visual aspect in order to enhance peoples self-esteem. Also, the elements of surprise by the family members, who gagefulnot see their relative until the end of their transformation, enhance the audiences curiosity and excitement. Another successful reality television subgenre is the talk show genre, with programmes such as The Oprah Winfrey Show or Dr. Phill. Shows like that feature a host who interviews guests or discusses a elect topic using the studio as a platform to inspire, make or entertain the audience, usually offering people, who watch from their homes, the chance to call and express their opinions about the topics discussed live. Probably though, the most popular subgenre of reality programmes is the game show genre, with shows such as subsister and Big Brother, which have had huge success worldwide over the years. With Survivor featuring isolated contestants in the fury who compete against each other for money and other prizes and Big Brother, featuring a group of people known as housemates, living together in a specially constructed house, isolated from the outside world and competing with each other, facing weekly evictions in order to win a cash prize, two shows are based on competition and elimination concepts. Each episode of each show has the contestants faced against certain tasks, building up suspicion and ensuring that the audience will watch until the very end to see the final result. With the participants being under 24 hour surveillance and all their actions observed, the audience can relate to them and decide who they like and who they do not.Generally, reality television is one of the most popular television genres and with all its subgenres falls under the category of factual television, which documents non-fiction television programming and actual real life events. The fact that reality shows create a mixture of information and entertainment concepts for their audience is generally known as infotainment and is also some other factor of the genres worldwide success (Hill, 2005).Apart from the ways reality television works though, it is also important to identify its success taking into consideration the audiences point of view and how this genre challenges specific ideas about it. In the past, television asked only that people would sit back and relax, as scripted dramas, sitcoms or documentaries supplied passive entertainment and education. Reality television on the other hand, offers audience participation and nigglingens the distance between television celebrities and viewers. It is no wonder then that one of the reasons the reality genre has been so powerful in the television market, is that it appeals to younger adults in particular (Hill, 2005). The reason is that people enjoy watching the elements of drama and competi tion of reality shows, since they can easily get attached to some of the characters, relate to them and feel part of their actions. They like to know what goes on behind closed doors, they watch over it intriguing and reality shows give them the chance to satisfy their curiosity. Also, reality shows shine a freedom of speech that was not there before, since people can now comment about what they do and do not like about a show or a character and also change the outcome of a show with their votes. notwithstanding no guinea pig how much viewers enjoy the various reality formats, they are also distrustful of the authenticity, precisely because they know that the peoples stories are presented to them in an entertaining manner, and because of that they are sceptical about how staged and scripted those stories are. on that point have also been several critiques and arguments about the reality genre and most of them are focused around the reality of it, since the ways in which these sh ows rebound reality are questionable. The detractors of the genre claim that the reality of it is inaccurate, since the dialogs or situations presented are staged and scripted by the producers, or even the choosing of the participants in each show is done specifically, in order for certain participants to have graduate(prenominal) chances of engaging into conflict with each other. Also, producers can attempt to stimulate several events to present them as real, with various formats or editing techniques, which can create different degrees of reality (Hill, 2005). For example, the way particular environments, related to each show, are unreal, because of how they are specifically constructed by the producers for the needs of the show or how the day by day activities, tasks or competitions that participants face are also controlled by the production team (e.g. the large house of Big Brother, or the tasks of the Survivor participants). Other critiques focus around how certain shows, li ke The X-Factor Auditions for example, depend on humiliating and exploiting participants that might not be as talented or suitable to be on television, in order to increase the ratings of the show, or depend on the shows voyeuristic elements, such as performances of intimate elements in public, in order to satisfy some viewers needs to observe other peoples lives (Bagdasarov et al. 2010). Also, some shows deposit on stereotypes along with humiliation of participants, resulting to more criticism about them. A famous incident of people judging someone on their appearance instead of their talent is Susan Boyles audition (YouTube) for the reality programme Britains Got Talent in 2009. By the time she had set food on the stage, the audience, as well as the judges, were expecting her to have no talent and make a fool of herself, because of her modest introduction on the stage and her age. But after she started singing and proved to be extremely talented, everyone was applauding in shock. Stereotyping is a usual element of reality shows and many people criticize the genre for having a negative cultural impact, since such notions and ideas are easily pervade and absorbed by society, especially if they come from the most popular television shows.Additionally, based on Blumler and Katzs (1974) uses and gratifications approach, the audience is active and able to select the media content that, based on their gratifications, will satisfy their needs. Therefore, their viewing motives can help the television programme producers predict activity (Godlewski and Perse, 2010). Also, reality television seems to fulfil the alleged, by the uses and gratifications approach, audience needs, which are surveillance, personal relationships, personal individualism and escapism. That way they provide a type of show suitable for everyones taste.Based on the aforementioned research though, how real can reality television formats be considered and what does the genres huge success show ab out how the audience responds to it? If people enjoy watching reality television programmes then they are also aware of how they can be edited to appear real and authentic to them, when in fact they are not. They are able to identify what they perceive to be good and bad programming and they are not usually watching reality shows to educate themselves about several subjects or understand more about the world. On the contrary, people watch reality shows to entertain themselves, to relax after a tire day, to laugh and to feel intrigued and excited. They know that the more real and entertaining a show appears to them, the less real and authentic they believe it to be (Hill, 2005), because they observe the participants of these shows in order to witness how people handle gluey situations and social dilemmas in front of cameras.All things considered, it is undeniable that the reality television genre is still one of the most popular genres today and even if audiences are aware of the genres illusion of reality, it still has a big appeal on them because it amuses them and because of its entertaining and relaxing concepts. For a short period of time, people can feel like a part of the show, a little closer to being the celebrities and the stars of television. Therefore, scripted or not, real or not, the reality genre will continue to be successful and as television programmes continue to develop and allow more interaction between the programmes and their audiences, it is very important that research around the interactive forms of reality television, which encourage increased audience activity, continue to be contacted.BIBLIOGRAPHYGodlewski, Lisa R., and Elizabeth M. Perse. Audience action mechanism And Reality Television Identification, Online Activity, And Satisfaction. talk Quarterly 58.2 (1976) 148-169.Hall, Alice. Viewers Perceptions Of Reality Programs. Communication Quarterly 54.2 (1976) 191-211.Hill, Annette. Reality TV Audiences And Popular Factual Tel evision. London Routledge, 2005.Murray, Susan, and Laurie Ouellette. Reality TV. New York New York University Press, 2004.YouTube,. Susan Boyle Audition HD FULL. N.p., 2015. Web. 08 May 2015.

Thums Up Soft Drink Brand Analysis

Thums Up Soft Drink Brand out(a)lineLaunched in India by Parle Agro Pvt. Ltd. Now geted by Coca- weed. Until leaving India in 1977, Coca pot was the nations leading flabby inebriety. It was around that time that the Chauhan brothers launched Thums Up, Parles flagship sens drink. The Tough Mans Cola quickly went on to become a across the country success, dominating smaller players like face packa Cola, Double Seven and Double Cola for over a decade. But all that changed in 1993 for that was when Coca Cola re-ente trigger-happy the Indian pabulum securities industry and Pepsi launched hither too.BackgroundThums Up is a carbonate soft drink (cola) admi rose-cheeked and biggest selling instigator in India, where its valiant, red thumbs up logotype is widespread.Earlier the logo of Thums Up was a red thumbs up gesture of hand with one-sided white sans-serif typography. This would later on be tailored and modified by Coca-Cola with giving some blue strokes and a more(preno minal) advance and modern-style. The main motive behind changing the logo was to lessen the dominance of red colour in the signage.Brand individualism of Thums UpIconic, victory, celebration, proactiveHappiness, brave, excitementsThums Up, Red color, logoMacho, Masculine, venturous, coolMasculine, risky, courageousMacho, refreshing, adventurous, joyfuluntitled acquaint at Product Life CycleThums Up has moldn all the stages of product life cycle except decline stage, starting from introduction. When the Brand was doing well, it was interpreted away from the market because it was giving stiff competition to Coca-cola but hundred had to bring out the discolouration once more to attack all the promotional policy of Pepsi and it was introduced erstwhile again.If we talk shape up current scenario, thums Up is at its Maturity stage. It has grown like whatsoeverthing, has been fortunate in attracting more and more number of customers and now it has a huge market cope. The stigm atise has been successful in capturing the minds of the consumers. Now, all the communication policies of the grade is all about informing consumers that the brand is in the market and doing well. The objective of the communication policy of the brand is to remind people about the strength and status of the brand chock up AnalysisWeaknessNegative PublicityDecline in gold for operating costsNo autonomyStrengthStrong brand imageGood marketing toolsStrong distribution channels contrasting assayBrand loyaltyReasonable priceThreatCut- pharynx competitionNew entrantsGovernment regulationsEconomic instabilityHealth Issues food market instabilityOpportunityGrowing MarketAcquisitionsInnovationOvertake competitors creative marketing toolsMarket ScenarioThums Up has enjoyed a near monopoly with a overmuch vehementer market share often beating its other rivals like Camp cola, Double seven and Dukes, but thither were many small regional players who had their own market. It was one of the major advertisers throughout the 1980s. In the mid-80s it had a sketch threat from a modernisticcomer Double Cola which suddenly disappeared within a few years.Pepsi was the first company to come to India In 1990, when the Indian government allowed the market to multinational companies Thums Up went up against the worldwide goliath for a strong ambush with neither side giving any quarter. When Pepsi had starred with famous bollywood actress like Juhi Chawla, to frustrate the Indian brand, Thums Up focussed on cricket sponsorship.Things became even more complicated when Coca-cola re-entered India after its absence seizure from 1977 to 1993. Now the fight became a three-way battle.But Things got changed post liberalization, when Thums Up was facing unbendable and stiff competition from coke and Pepsi both. But later on all this happening, owners of Parle Agro, finally sell Thums Up to Coca-Cola.Relaunch of the productWhen Thums UP was sold off to Coca-Cola, it in fact tried to k ill Thums Up, but later on they sensed that Pepsi would be more benefitted than Coke if they withdrew Thums Up from the market and Coke decided to use Thums Up against Pepsi to thwart the brand. By this time, Coca-cola had about 60.5% share in the Indian soft-drink market but if they would direct travel Thums Up from the market the market share would have remained 28.72% only. Hence it once again launched Thums Up brand tar developing the 30 to 45 year olds.In todays scenario, amongst all the carbonated drinks Coca-cola occupies about 58% market share in India in which Thums-up is the premier selling brand with a market share of about 15% of the total CSD market where as Pepsi is the second brand with 36%.Communication strategy after Re-launchAfter entering again into the market the brand was re-positioned as a manly drink, stressing on its strong and bitter taste qualities. Thums Up kick-started an forceful and aggressive hunts directly targeting Pepsis TV ads, showcasing the st rength of the drink in the hope that the representation of an adult drink would attract more young consumers. Grow up to Thums Up was a triumphant and amazing campaign done by Thums Up and because of this campaign the market share of the brand soared. The brand became unbreakable and resilient postureEarlier Thums up was positioned as a refreshing cold drink, with having slogans such as Great and Happy Days are here once again but after this it was around post-1996 that the brand decided to move towards a more idiosyncratic, manly view.Having all odds Thums Up has enjoyed a market share of around 30% at the time, but Coca-Cola has always focus all its money and resources on promoting the Coke brand.The latest thums up 2010 ad has an pose that is I will do anything for Thunder which shows the enthusiasm and adventurous nature of males.The different types of positioning opted by the brand in several(prenominal) times are as followsTime durationBrand positioningTag line1977-1980Jo y, Refreshment, HappinessHappy days are here again1981-1987MasculineI am the gravy.1988-1992Masculine try the thunder19993-1995Back out from the market1995-2006Confidence, masculine, AdventurousTaste the thunder2006 frontwardConfidence, Masculine, cheerfulTaste the thunderCurrent marketing program rase after 13 years, Thums up is sold more than Pepsi and Coke. The brand has refused to back up because of its strongness and attitude involved in it. The brand personifies victory, achievement and celebration. Thums Up is our really own Indian brand. The brand is very popular amongst Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, UP and Karnataka where Andhra contributes 30% of the total sales.Coke has always promoted Thums Up half heartedly but even after all mess up, the brand has stood strong and unending . May be it is on the part of consumers that they are non will to let go the brand. This brand has got an iconic status. It is a classic discipline where the customers h ave the ownership of the brand.If Coke would have promoted the brand in virtually efficient manner, Pepsi did not have a chance to enter and struggle in Indian cola market. Coke could have ruled and became the market leader in India only with Thums Up.Now, Coke is trying to have a separate market for Thums Up. Coke is trying to play the regional farinaceous through which in those areas where sales of coke is strong, Thums Up is withdrawn slowly.Thums Up Launches New Ad Campaign Yeh ToofanThis summer, Thums Up, one of Indias most iconic and the largest soft drink brand, is all set to storm fans with a new Taste the Thunder communication initiative- Yeh Toofan. In the latest campaign, Bollywood Super Star and Thums Up brand Ambassador, Akshay Kumar reminiscences about the several thunder packed action stunts for his positron emission tomography bottle of Thums Up. The communication takes the I will do Anything for my thunder attitude to the next level, where Akshay is seen, back in thick of action, performing some epinephrin pumping action such as crashing through the window of an exploding high rise, snatching a Thums Up bottle from jaws of a vicious alligator, taking on a mob of angry gangsters to swimming through strong rapids. This campaign first got previewed to the Thums Up fans on Facebook and then releases on mass media channels.Internet Marketing done By Thums UpHonestly, Thums Up is a brand does not use the power of internet marketing. Their main motive is to reach out mass public by using mass media tools of promotion. They have focussed more on TVCs and OOH media. In the field of internet marketing, I could rally only following steps taken by the brand entirely the ads of the company are uploaded on YouTube.They are using social media as in Facebook for awareness but the extent is very low.They are having explore locomotive Optimisation to an extent because while searching for data relate to Thums Up, I was getting the links related to Thum s Up but fluent a lot digest be done in this field. alone the latest updates about the brand come on internet on regular basisThere is no separate website of the brand. It comes under Coca-Cola as a sub brand.What laughingstock be done-?Now, as we can see that the company does not promote itself on internet and it feels also that there is no use of it. Frankly speaking thums Up is doing great in the market but in this situation of cut-throat competition, a lot can be done on internet to create buzz and to get competitive advantage. As we all agree that this age has become parole of fingers instead of word of mouth, Thums up as a big brand should utilise the power of internet in current scenario.Developing their own website Thums Up should have its own website, where they can separately calculate the hits by using web analytics. On their website, they can demonstrate their latest ads, new packaging, history of the brand and all related information can be found on that website onl y.Using Social Media Thums Up being a youth product, must use social media as one of their promotional tool. They can have application related to the brand they can have games related to the brand. One idea can be that they develop a quiz related to the latest updates of Thums Up and they offer prizes to the winner.Search Engine Optimisation Thums Up uses this technique as promotion tools but not in an effective way. When I was looking for the Internet marketing plan of Thums Up, I was getting every data related to Thumbs Up, which was very irritating. So, I think they should focus on this and try to get the keywords as short as possible.Search Engine Ads Thums Up doesnt go for any ads on Google. I think they can have collaboration with any food place, restaurants etc and along with their ad, Thums Up can promote itself.Email Marketing Thums Up can use email marketing for increase in its sales. They can directly contact the people who are involved and have the sureness to make dec isions. For example, they can target colleges and all. Where they can interact with the higher imprimatur through emails and can get the orders. If they allow, Thums Up can have its stall or counter in the colleges and offices.From a brand that was virtually uncontroversial to a brand that was stifled, Thums Up stormed back after a near death experience. The brand proves that its strength lies not just in its taste but also in its performance. The grown up tag is an brook one and will probably counter Pepsi for a while to come.

Renaissance in 12th Century Culture and Thought

renascence in 12th speed of light farming and ThoughtHow take over is the label reincarnation, when applied to twelfth century im date and grow?IntroductionDuring this essay we shall be exploring the finish of the ordinal deoxycytidine monophosphate in atomic number 63. We atomic number 18 concerned with the extent to which this expiration, which was one of extraordinary hearty, economic, and semi policy-making change, with profound victimisations in thought and culture can be considered a reincarnation. First it is necessary to contemplate the true meaning of the label rebirth. What are the most authorized features of a renaissance that mark it aside from primaeval(a) full stops of time? In the first part of our work we shall effort to define the parameters of what a renaissance is.The Second part of our work impart examine the historic background of the twelfth blow. We shall briefly examine the most important developments during a period that has done muc h to shape the young world, including the grind away of benevolentism, the private, the advance of the Church, the creation of Universities and the development of legal codes throughout europium. wherefore was the ordinal deoxycytidine monophosphate such an important period in chivalrous history and did these profound changes and developments constitute a renaissance in the personal manner of the renaissance of the fifteenth nose candy?In our final Chapter we result familiarize the case that using the bourn renaissance for the twelfth cytosine is misleading, absurd and inappropriate. Although the twelfth century was extremely important, with profound developments in many fields, this does non necessarily make it a renaissance. Many historians would also compete that applying such labels is detrimental to the study of history in this chapter we will examine round of their arguments. In our conclusion we will conclude on whether it is accurate, reclaimable or app ropriate to apply the term renaissance to the Twelfth light speed.The term renaissance, or re-birth is usually associated with the Italian reincarnation in the fourteenth and 15th Centuries which subsequently dissipate throughout Europe.1 This period saw a revival in classical texts and sources of know leadge in a descriptor of fields, mathematics, uprightness, philosophy, art and education to name but a few. Educational reform spread these ideas throughout Europe, leading to developments in knowledge, technology and agriculture, as tumesce as social changes which saw a population shift to towns and cities.2 In essence renaissance is referring to a revival, in this case the classic texts and teachings of the antique classicals. It is generally accepted by historians today that there were several renaissances in Europe, in the Ninth, Twelfth and 14th Centuries, where profitd access to classical texts and saucily(prenominal) social factors led to delicate, technological a nd social developments throughout Society.3 When referring to the Twelfth Century renascence most historians mean the period between 1050 and 1250, and unconnected the early period of the later conversion, developments happened throughout Europe and did not begin in one region or Country.4Chapter OneThe Twelfth Century was arguably one of the most important in medieval times, if not in the whole of European History. The rediscovery of many Latin and Greek texts following the egest of the Greek Empire and increased contact with Islamic scholars led to an increase in scientific knowledge, and to developments in all intellectual fields. The Twelfth Century saw striking advances in technology, which combined with a warmer temper and greater stability led to an agricultural surplus, an mendd quality of deportment and new opportunities. This more dynamic European Society invented spectacles, paper, unquestionable the handling of gunpowder, more accurate clocks and printing metho ds.5 For a period the Latin and Greek texts were simply re-produced by an increasing number of European Scholars. in stages once all these works were discovered and thoroughly absorbed, many Scholars began to kind upon this knowledge and adapt it for contemporary use, no more so than in the field of law.Roman law and a revival of jurisprudence spread throughout Twelfth Century Europe, replacing traditional, custom based law and helping create stability. One of the best examples of this was in Henry II of Englands legal reforms. Like in many parts of Europe trial by ordeal or battle was still common, and the coat of the Kings justness was not uniform throughout his British territories. Henry II marched trial by jury and set up magistrate courts so that his representatives could administer legal rulings on his behalf. This was the beginning of the Modern day justice system, it made the legal system fairer and helped establish the authority of the Church and nation throughout Euro pe.6The artistic pursuits flourished during the Twelfth Century, the fields of poetry, architecture, music, and literature all developed greatly. This was partly a resolution of the increased wealth and security in many parts of Europe, but it was also an indication of the self confidence, creativity and curiosity of a more dynamic European Society thirstily absorbing new sources of knowledge from the Latin and Greek texts, the Islamic and Byzantium worlds.7 This artistic revival also had few links to the more humansist philosophies and teachings from the great Twelfth Century scholars and teachers. Humanist thought also developed in the period around the Twelfth Century, and many academics, such as Morris, see that the Twelfth Century saw the beginnings of the discovery of the individual and the origins of rational thought.8 The feeler of the individual led to a wider interest in self expression, human relations and self discovery, it was a point when man became interested i n the position of the individual in relation to Society and its institutions.9 This apparent rise of rational thought however did not coincide with a decomposition of the powers of the Church. Indeed during this period the Christian Church went through a period of dynamic reform, strengthening its influence and power to a point where the pope would attempt to exercise power and influence over Monarchies and Empires. It was Innocent III, a proponent of both religious and blue legal codes, who called for a apparent motion against the infidels in 1198, and he who made the English King John his vassal.10 The Twelfth Century re primary(prenominal)ed a period of faith where to stock-still question whether there was a God was considered madness.How then was the knowledge gleaned from the classical Greek and Latin texts disseminated throughout Europe? The establishing of Universities in places such as Paris, Oxford and Bologna was possibly one of the greatest events of the Twelfth Cent ury. Students from all over Europe travelled to these centres of learning, and helped to spread their new scholastic thought and ideas back to their homelands.11 The Universities not sole(prenominal) helped to re-introduce classical knowledge back into Europe but helped instal upon and adapt the works to let out serve the very incompatible European Society that they inhabited, a Society that was rapidly changing and beginning to research the world outside the European frontiers. We dupe established then that the period of the Twelfth Century, which for many academics means 1050-1250, was a period of great economic, social, political and religious change. In our next chapter we will argue that the label renascence is fitting of such a deep important era.Chapter TwoThe Twelfth Century did indeed contain many of the features that defined the 15th Century renascence in Italy. The discovery of Latin and Greek texts allowed for great advances in the scientific, social, political and legal fields as well as other intellectual pursuits. After the long process of absorbing the vast set up of texts, Twelfth Century Scholars built upon that knowledge just as some of the great Italian minds in Florence did several hundred years later. The bridal of Roman legal canons and the revival of the arts are two examples of a European re-birth a fundamental change in Society for the better inspired by the classical works.12 If anything the Twelfth Century was perhaps even more open minded than its later Italian rebirth, adopting and learning from cultures antecedently regarded as heathens and heretics.A Renaissance cannot be defined simply as an interest in classic texts or the adoption of some aspects of quaint Intellectual ideas into Society. The Italian Renaissance was a flowering and development of ideas that were inspired by classical texts and sources. The Twelfth Century saw rapid developments in virtually every intellectual pursuit as a result of the re-disco very of Latin and Greek texts. It helped lead to the rise of new towns and helped spread tongue literatures. As Haskins demonstrates it was in many ways the early beginnings of the modern world, transcendent the achievements of the authors of those ancient texts.It saw the culmination of Romanesque art and the beginnings of Gothic, the revival of the Latin classics and of Latin poetry and Roman law the recovery of Greek science, with its Arabic additions, and of much of Greek philosophy and the origin of the first European universities.Another main feature of the Italian Renaissance is the spread of humanist ideas and philosophy. We have previously demonstrated that Humanist thought and philosophy flourished in the Twelfth Century, and the origins of the singular, an important Western concept, arose in this period of intense intellectual change and development. The advantage of the Church was not challenged, but a philosophy of intellect and of valuing the human spirit that so defined the Italian Renaissance and indeed the later Enlightenment flourished in the newly created schools and Universities of Twelfth Century Europe.13 It is irrelevant to equation the relative contributions of each Renaissance in a bid to establish which is more important or which period contributed more to the formation of modern, secular Europe. We are merely concerned with whether the label renaissance is a suited label for the Twelfth Century. Academics such as Haskins and Brooke do clearly commit it was a Renaissance and have given clear evidence to nourish their claims.14 In our final chapter we will examine the theories of other academics who argue that it is neither appropriate nor relevant to describe the Twelfth Century as a Renaissance.Chapter ThreeFor many historians, such as Panofsky and Chenu, it is inaccurate to describe the Twelfth Century as a true renaissance.15 There are several different reasons for this approach. Scholars like Panofsky believed that althou gh Latin and Greek works were re-discovered and that this led to a degree of development, the change was limited to a small swear of Intellectual pursuits. Although many in the Twelfth Century imitated the texts and borrowed some of their teachings, they failed to authentically appreciate the fact that the ancient world was a completely different culture from their own, their understanding of the works and of the time itself was limited and narrow and unlike the scholars, artists and philosophers of the Italian Renaissance they did not seek to return to classical age or change the society in which they lived, merely adapt some classical teachings to suit their environment.16Other historians are not quite so dismissive of the huge range of achievements in the period around the Twelfth Century, and historians like Chenu recognise the importance of the era whilst believing that the label of renaissance does not do the period justice. The engine of artistic, economic and political ha rvest-feast was not the re-discovery of the Latin and Greek texts but the improving economic and social conditions. The true re-birth was the revitalization of the Christian Church, which inspired a new ache for learning, discovery, and invention and created an atmosphere in which the ancient texts could be adapted to improve the conditions of a newly invigorated Christian Society which was increasingly placing rationality and reason at the heart of its teachings. The Twelfth Century was a unique, profoundly important era that should be studied in its own right, not as a mere pre- Renaissance but an age that helped evidence in the beginnings of Modern Western Society.17ConclusionIn conclusion then, how appropriate is the term renaissance to describe Twelfth Century thought and culture? This essay has demonstrated that the Twelfth Century was a period of significant social, economic, political and religious change. Those developments had a major impact in do the modern Western Wo rld. Increased prosperity and security created new opportunities and a seemingly universal desire for learning and advancement led to new inventions, the formation of new institutions and the adoption of philosophy which facilitated the rise of humanism and the individual as the centre of Western thought. The contribution of classic Latin and Greek texts cannot be underestimated, the knowledge revealed and subsequently built upon spurred developments in medicine, law, philosophy, technology, theology and art. irrelevant the Italian Renaissance Twelfth Century men did not hearken back to the ancient times, nor did they wish to re-order Society, merely make it better, more Christian and more humane.It is our conclusion then that using the label renaissance for this period is useful in initially expressing the profound importance of this period both in gallant history and in the effect it has had on the development of Western culture itself. Through its usage we demonstrate that the 14th and 15th Century Renaissances were not as unique as many historians would have us believe, and that the so called dark ages were not the continuous period of ignorance and awkwardness so often imagined. But the Twelfth Century is more than a pale imitation of the Italian Renaissance, it is a period of time worthy of separate study and analysis, in the future it maybe that Society will regard this period as the true Renaissance and the later Italian period a development on the achievements and work of a dynamic, cowcatcher and inspired Century.BibliographyBenson R L Constable G (eds.), Renaissance and vicissitude in the Twelfth Century (Cambridge Mass., Harvard University Press, 1982, 1991).Brooke C N L, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London, Thames Hudson, 1969)Chenu M-D, Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century ( dough, wampum UP, 1968, 1997)Constable G, The Reformation of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).Cook W R Herzman R B, Th e Medieval World View An Introduction (Oxford, OUP, 1983)Duby G, The Europe of the Cathedrals (Geneva, Skira, 1966)Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927)Hollister C W, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (New York NY, Wiley, 1969)Holmes U T, The Idea of a Twelfth-Century Renaissance Speculum 26 (1951)Morris C, The Discovery of the Individual 1050-1200 (Toronto, Toronto UP, 1987)Packard S R, Twelfth Century Europe (Amherst Mass., Massachusetts UP, 1973)Panofsky E, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art (New York NY, Harper Row, 1970)Southern R W, Medieval humanism and Other Studies (Oxford, Blackwell, 1970, 1984)Stiefel T, The Intellectual vicissitude in Twelfth Century Europe (London, Croom Helm, 1985)Swanson R N, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999)Treadgold W (Ed), Renaissances before the Renaissance heathen Revivals of fresh Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanfor d UP, 1984)Trevor-Roper H R, The Rise of Christian Europe (London, Thames and Hudson, 1965)Wolff P, The Awakening of Europe (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1968, 1985)Footnotes1 Ferruolo, Stephen C, The Twelfth-Century Renaissance in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances in advance the Renaissance Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p.1142 Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927) p.53 Cook W R Herzman R B, The Medieval World View An Introduction (Oxford, OUP, 1983) p.2124 Swanson R N, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999).5 Packard S R, Twelfth Century Europe (Amherst Mass., Massachusetts UP, 1973)6 Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927) pp193-2247 Brooke C N L, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London, Thames Hudson, 1969)8 Morris C, The Discovery of the Individual 1050-1200 (Toronto, Toronto UP, 1987)9 Ferruolo, Stephen C, The Twelfth-Century Renaissance in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p.12610 Cook W R Herzman R B, The Medieval World View An Introduction (Oxford, OUP, 1983) p.20311 Stiefel T, The Intellectual Revolution in Twelfth Century Europe (London, Croom Helm, 1985)12 Hollister C W, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (New York NY, Wiley, 1969)13 Ferruolo, Stephen C, The Twelfth-Century Renaissance in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) pp122-13214 Brooke C N L, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London, Thames Hudson, 1969)15 Chenu M-D, Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century (Chicago, Chicago UP, 1968, 1997)16 Ferruolo, Stephen C, The Twelfth-Century Renaissance in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance Cultural Reviv als of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p11617 IBID, P.134

What Is Ethnonationalism And Its Political Role Politics Essay

What Is Ethno micklealism And Its Political social function Politics EssayThe conclusion of the Cold War in 1991 coincides with the flush of violent cultivated negates and the break of nations based on ethno home(a)ism. The 1990s witnessed a new surge of violent civil actions and the splintering of cultural wars (graph). Dan Smith, manager of the International Peace Research Institution in Oslo (PRIO), has calcu easyd that of the 52 armed contravenes of various sizes that took place in 42 some(prenominal)ises in 1993, 36, in 30 states, had ethno-national characteristics that is, at lest integrity side could be place as rifleing to a clear social gathering (Tishkov 200472). The shape ethnonationalism refers to a politicized group affiliation based on inherent singularitys culturality, race, clan, tribe, paganal heritage or organized religion that define a group of individuals in the minds of its members. Ethnonationalist strength should not surprise, went the common refrain, as they ar based on primordial compassionate emotions and centuries of explanation. There may be a breakage were the individuals primeval indistinguishability and eitheregiance shifts from the civil state to the ethnonation. This shift may or may not issuing in violent conflict. As of 2000, fewer than 10% of the gentlemans 191 nations be culturalally or racially homogenized (Wright 1973158).Such conflicts may involve bully fierceness, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Bosnia and Rwanda crimson in separate cases there is little violence, such as blue Ireland. Ethnonationalism violent conflicts also occur inside formal democracy, for example, the struggle betwixt Catholics and Protestants in Yankee Ireland (Slack and Doyon 2001139).EthnonationalismThe roots of modern nationalism can be found in late eighteenth-century Western Europe and North America, and it afterwardwards spread to all of Europe and as yettually to all parts of the world (Alter 199418). paganity is the some central and designerful element in the development of nationalism. Ethnonationalism denotes some(prenominal) the commitment to a nation deprived of its k right offlight-emitting diodege state and the loyalty to an heathen group embodied in a specific state, in peculiar(prenominal) where the latter is conceived as a nation-state (Connor 1994?). Ethnonationalist believe nationality is inherent, one can neither acquire it if one does not scram it, nor change it if one does it has nothing to do with individual will, and constitutes a genetic characteristic (Guibernau and Rex 20105). Ethnonationalism is grow in a sense of common origins, mainly ancestral, as manifested in sh ard linguistic, spiritual, and racial marker (Riggs 1994599).Nationalism is delineate as an extensive aggregation of individuals closely associated with each(prenominal) early(a) by common descent, words or history, as to form a distinct race or people (Slack Doyon 20 01). Nation by the latter definition becomes equivalent to social group. Nation is a matter of self-aw areness or self-consciousness (Connor 1978104). This is precisely wherefore it is so delicate to define nation, because it is a self-defining group. Nationalism arises when the members of a nation demand that the nation be boned into a soereign state (Slack and Doyon 2001140). The essence of nationalism is not tangible, tho psychological, a matter of strength rather than fact (Connor 197242). MORE ON PAGE 43. Nationalism is probable to be based on heathen distinctions, rather than the idea that everyone who lives in a country is entitled to the similar rights and privileges (Guibernau and Rex 201096 Reader). Allegations of heathen supremacy, along with ethnonationalism and retribution for past in ripeices, are at the center of much of the heathenish violence (Cozic 199493). The causes and implications of heathenishal conflict are chthonianstood as a dispute active im portant political, stinting, social, cultural or territorial issues amongst ii or more ethnic groups (Guibernau and Rex 201090).Ethnicity relates to the identification of individuals by lecture, religion, geographic location, the sharing of common historical experience, or various other elements. social rank of the group is based on the presumption of a shared trait or traits that can be eachthing from genealogy to dressing habits (Slack Doyon 2001140). An ethnic group is therefore defined by a boundary ascribed by the members of the ethnic group or come forthsider.There is a distinction surrounded by primary and secondary ethnic groups (Riggs 1994592). Riggs asserts that primary ethnic groups t curiosity to function as closed sub-societies within a larger soldiery society, whereas secondary ethnic groups, while maintaining their cultural identity, move promptly in a host society at various levels (1994592). In modem states members of primary ethnic communities all ev eryplacelook in the state where they live as a basis for their self-identity, whereas members of secondary ethnic communities accept the state (Riggs 1994592). Problems arise in both cases but they are different (Riggs 1994592). Members of a primary ethnic community feel equal prisoners and they seek to escape the confines of the state (Riggs 1994592). This leads them to rebel, to seek indecorum, indep abateence, or nuclear fusion reaction with another state by boundary changes (Riggs 1994593). The members epitomize ethnonationalism. By line of descent members of a secondary ethnic community a great deal feel that although they are unfairly treated by the state, it is possible by quiet factor to secure full equality of precondition as citizens in all matters involving political, social and scotch justice (Riggs 1994593). Their sense of grievance frequently leads to political action and non-violent protests or civil disobedience, but not to rebellions (Riggs 1994593).Conflic t tends to go forth when ethnic or national identities are in opposition to each other. Additionally, mingled with 1918 and 1945, nationalism became synonymous with intolerance, inhumanity and violence (Cozic 199419). Most ethnic conflicts afford a background of domination, injustice or oppression by one ethnic group or another (Wright 1993158). Although ethnic conflict is viewed as a strife based on religion, economic inequality, political, language, or another tangible element, the conflict is fundamentally based on identity which manifests itself in the us-them syndrome (Connor 196746). The ethnic conflict could escalate into ethic race murder.According to Riggs (1994) nigh 130 million individuals have been slain surrounded by 1900 and 1987 as a result of racial extermination committed by government activitys on their own people. umteen times more people are killed in racial extermination and hatful murder than in all foreign and domestic wars (Riggs 1994583). While to the gamyest degree of the deaths reported by Riggs probably cannot be attributed to ethnonational conflicts, however, it is reasonable to presume that ethnic conflict has been an important factor in many a(prenominal) of them.Democracies provide minorities with opportunities for non-violent materialisation of grievance. Minorities believe they can gain more legitimacy through peaceful political action than by violent rebellions or scourgeism. Conversely, in shaky authoritarian politicss, where minorities are suppressed and ofttimes killed, some will organize rebellions, feeling that solitary(prenominal) by violence will they gain the autonomy needed to protect their interests. Riggs offers the complementary finding that genocide occurs virtually often in non-democratic states, whereas democracies are far more non-violent. Among the 169 million victims of democide during the 20th century, Riggs claims that only ab break through 2 million were inflicted on their citizens by d emocratic states (1994). Of the 167 million, over 110 million took place under communist regimes, about 138 in totalitarian states and well over 28 million under authoritarianism. (Riggs 1994584). Ethnonational rebellions, therefore, have several(prenominal) dimensions they often combine revolt against oppression by antagonistic but dominate communities with the need to create enclaves of order in a context of disorder (Riggs 1994584).The Troubles (1968-1998)The conflict of the Troubles dates back the 1600s when Britain began colonizing Ireland, it encouraged Protestants from Scotland and English, to move to blue Ireland to help maintain and control the Irish Catholics (Healey 2006). The new arrivals began, with the assistance of the English, to own much of the economy, political structures, and land in the northern region of Ireland. The Protestants began to spot themselves from the native Catholics through policies implemented to create separate facilities within the comparabl e society for the use of a minority group, similar to Jim Crow separationism in the United States. Difference in laws and customs amid Protestants and Catholics were employ to reinforce the subordinate position of the Irish Catholics. However, the Irish were not subordinated and tackle to gain their independence through violent rebellions, which ultimately led to their independents. The easterly Rebellion in 1916, also known as the Proclamation of 1916, led to creation of the Republic of Ireland (Healey 2006). The Republic of Ireland consisted of most of the island, except the providence of Ulster. Now, blue Ireland consisted of Protestant pack and the Republic of Ireland consisted of Catholic majority, which provided the underlying basis for the Trouble.In Federal Ireland, Catholic and Protestant are terms use to inculpate two diverse and conflicting cultures (Shivers and Bowmen 19843). Distinguishing factors between the two are internal, the expressive style one views o neself. However, Most people in Northern Ireland insist that the civic conflict that occurred was not because of religion but sovereignty not Protestantism but Loyalism not Catholicism but Nationalism or Republicanism (Vincent 127). Protestant majority and Catholic minority in Northern Ireland is another way of distinguishing between the two groups. There is no distinct term to explain the minority-majority spilt, but Northern Irish people have use many other terms Insiders/Outsiders the haves/the have nots colonials/natives Scotch/Gales Protestant/Catholic Unionist/ superpatriotic Loyalist/Republican British/Irish the Orange/the Green (Shivers and Bowmen 19844). The attempts by Catholic minority to express through the electoral process their long-standing discontentment with political rule by a religiously and culturally distinct people, as well as the attempts of the castigate government to move toward equalization of opportunity for the minority, resulted in a series of viole nt reactions during 1966, and untimely the inception of the Troubles (Connor 196712).The struggle predicated on fundamental differences in national identity. The people of Northern Ireland did not homogeneously consider themselves Irish. In a study conducted in 1968 by the University of Strathcylde, 43 percent considered themselves Irish, 29 percent British, 21 percent Ulster, and 7 percent mixed, uncertain, or mixed (Connor 196745). On the basis of ethnic and religious history in Northern Ireland, there is a correlation coefficient between those that identify themselves as Irish and Catholicism (Connor 196745).McGarry and OLeary (1995) interpret religion as an ethnic marker, a component of ethnonationalism in Northern Ireland, the conflict is about two contesting national identities, Unionist (Protestant) and Nationalist (Catholic). faith is just a label used to distinguish members of one ethnonationalist group from another. devotion was used as the basis of separate social stru ctures that keep communities apart. Whyte (1990) wrote about the three ways in whichreligion and social segregation were seen in Northern Ireland segregation by religion in education, high levels of exogamy (marriage within ones religious group), and high levels of residential segregation.The churches worked together with the political parties and the two states, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, to keep people divided and maintain their forcefulness (Fulton 1991). Religion has acted as an agent in historical struggles for political power (Fulton 1991). Churches tried to keep their control through influencing political policy and maintaining their spellbind on the education system.According to Wright (1973), religion as an ideology is passing important. Religion was an important source of identity in Northern Ireland, unconstipated for Protestants who do not go to church (Wright 1973). Religion can escape as an ideology even for those who are not committed believers (Wright 1973).Religion is important in many complex ways it provides meaning and nubble to ethnonational identities (Mitchell 2006). Religious ideas inform Protestants everyday understandings of social relationships and perceptions of Catholics (Wright 1973). The more segregation between communities, the less information each has of the other. Knowledge comes from socialized teachings, ideas, theories, and mythologies, which are often religious in nature (Wright 1973).Religious ideas overlap with political and economic divisions and this makes them even more important.Religion, according to Claire Mitchell (2006), derives social and political significance from cardinal overlapping dimensions 1) relationship between the churches and sociopolitical power (i.e. relationships with nationalist and unionist politicians), 2) consumption of religion as the dominant ethnic marker (maintained through unintegrated education, marriage, housing patterns and social networks),3) religions role in the construction of communities (esp. Catholicism, the role of the Catholic Church in organising social life and the importance of ritual), 4) religions role in the construction of ideologies (esp. Protestantism, concepts such as liberty, the honest Ulsterman, and anti-Catholicism), and 5) relationship between god and politics (esp. for fundamentalists/evangelicals).The essence of nation being is psychologically important. Members of a particular group feel a sense of being related to one another, or of myths of being from a common descendent. The turmoil in Northern Ireland between those who think of themselves as Irish and those who do not is facilely explained as a religious struggle, no other readily identifiable distinction, such as language or race, being in evidence (Connor 1984146).Ethnonational inequality does occur in a given state, for example, in Northern Ireland contrariety is a major element in the poorer economic and occupational status of the Irish as contrast with the non-Irish (Connor1984148).The Good Friday Agreement marked the end of the Troubles, which was established in 1998, created a new power sharing bargain for the governance in Northern Ireland (Healey 2006). Thus, both Protestant and Catholic parties would participate in the government.The Bosnian War (1992-1995)Yugoslavia was formed in 1918, at the end of World War I (Healey 2006479). The country consists of a variety of ethnic groups, including Croats, Serbs, Bosnians, and Muslims. In 1974 Josip Broz Tito turned Yugoslavia into a confederation of six republics, one of which was Bosnia and Herzegovina (Slack and Doyon 2001142). Bosnia was the most diverse republic, often described as a microcosm of the Balkans, a human mosaic made up of the genes of innumerable (Slack and Doyon 2001141). Before this the Muslims have never been able to assert themselves as a distinct ethnic group, with aspirations of statehood, as have the Croats and Serbs (Slack and Doyon 2001141). As a con sequence of the newly formed republics, Muslims were breathing out to be the dominant group in Bosnia. During the time that Yugoslavia was led by Tito, Roman Catholic Croats, Orthodox Christian Serbs, and Muslim Bosnians coexisted peacefully in Bosnia.However, following Titos death in 1980, Yugoslavia began to be breakup. While the Croats tended to view Yugoslavia as a decentralized federation, the Serbs were espoused to a highly centralized system (Slack and Doyon 2001142). With Bosnias drug withdrawal from Yugoslavia in 1992, the Bosnian Croats and the Bosnian Serbs suddenly became apart of the ethnic minorities in the new state of Bosnia instead of being members of the dominant Croat and Serb nations within Yugoslavia. The tribe Bosnia in 1991 consisted of Bosnian Muslims (1.9 million, 44% of all), Serbs (1.4 million, 31%), Bosnian Croats (760,000), 17%, and Others (all rest ethnicities jointly 350,000, 8%) (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005188).Demographic conditions can lead to ethno nationalist war when ethnonationalism becomes a political force (Slack and Doyon 2001159). The relative numbers of rival ethnic universes within a disputed territory becomes an issue of concern for a civil war. Bosnian Serbs, and later also Bosnian Croats, fought (often through ethnic cleanup and terror ranges) to take and control territories that differently would be subject to the rule of Bosnian Muslims. Ethnic conflict takes place when mobilized identity groups struggle for great power, whether for power in an already established state or a newly independent state. In 1991, the Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic began to increase the control condition of Serbs in the motive Yugoslavia, particularly in three republics, Bosnia, Croatia and Slovenia, felt directly threatened by Serb nationalism and the perspective of Greater Serbia carved out of the territories mainly in Bosnia (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005188). The Muslims fought for these territories, as they believed they did not have much choice. disruption away from Yugoslavia put Bosnian Muslims in a particularly difficult position, as they were left with no support other than the one anticipate from the international community, which came in April 1992, however, it did not stop the Bosnian conflict (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005189). delinquent to the mixed ethnic composition of Bosnia, there was an absence of a individual ethnic Muslim republic in the antecedent Yugoslavia. The most all-important(a) observation of the Bosnian population at the outbreak of the 1990s conflict is that while there were Bosnians in a geographical sense, there were exactly any Bosnians in a political sense. Bosnian Muslims, Serbs and Croats existed as politically distinct groups who happened to live in Bosnia (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005188). Political goals of these groups were too distinct to forgo for coexistence. Serbs, and later also Croats, fought, often through ethnic cleansing and terror campaigns, to take and contr ol of Bosnia (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005188).The conflicts were not religious wars, but religion and language were important tools of ethnic identification, ethnonationalism. In an effort to distinguish the other the ethnic groups stressed subtle differences among the languages. Located in the heart of the former-Yugoslavia, Bosnia found itself locked between two more powerful states, Croatia and Serbia. The wars caused the most destruction in Bosnia, as the country contains sizeable Croat and Serb populations.The 1990 elections, is an example of growing ethnonationalism in Bosnia, members of each ethnic group voted in the 1990 election along ethnic nationalist lines, even though they were unimpressed with the party leaders, out of fear that ethnic groups to which they did not belong would gain political ascendancy (Slack and Doyon 2001143). The political construction of ethnonationalism had now begun, and Bosnia was beginning to partition. The Territorial partitions can lead to renewe d violence and mass refugee flows, entail an indefinite international peacekeeping presence, and paradoxically can result in new sets of sectarian demands (Wood 200170). An imposed partition only rarely results in a homogeneous territory and often leads to civic wars.gestural at the end of the war, the Dayton Agreement was more of a ceasefire agreement than a sustainable, long-term solution for Bosnia. According to this agreement signed in declination 1995, Bosnia is a partitioned state divided into two parts. One entity is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a majority of Muslims and Croat population, and the other entity is Republika Srpska, almost entirely populated by Serbs (Tabeaui and Bijaki 2005189). The borders were decided by the frontlines when the wars ended, resulting in the formation of ethnic enclaves. The three dominant ethnic groups, Muslims, Serbs, and Croats, are represented in all levels of government thus creating pleonastic personnel and slow refor m. The country has three presidents, one from each group, and a parliament in which Croats, Serbs and Muslims each have a third of seats. Furthermore, many politicians gain votes in elections through ethnonationalist campaigns that appeal to their own ethnic and religious group. The entire government reports to a High Representative, who is appointed largely by the international community and will remain in Bosnia for an undetermined time.Since the wars, the population of Bosnia in 2009 was 4.6 million according to the CIA World Factbook. Muslims comprise 48% of the population, Serbs are 37% and Croats are 14%. Religious demographics strongly reflect ethnic demographics in the population of Bosnia, with 40% Muslim, 31% Orthodox, and 15% Roman Catholic. With such a strong connection between religion and ethnicity in the former Yugoslavia, it is not surprising that religion became an important tool of identification of ethnonationalism during and after the wars.Rwanda (1994)While Rwan das two ethnic groups, Hutus and Tutsis, experienced a long history of hatred, the conflict escalated in April 1994 when a plane carrying the Hutu President of Rwanda was shot megabucks over the capital, Kigali (Healey 2006). The suspicious deaths of the presidents of Rwanda triggered a sudden and massive bloodletting, primarily by Hutus against Tutsis (Wood 200160). An estimated 5-10 per cent of Rwandas population was then killed between the second workweek of April and the third week of May 1994 one of the highest casualty rates of any population in history from non-natural causes (Hintjens 1999241-2). In all roughly 800,000 people were killed, and millions fled Rwanda (Healey 2006).The history of Tutsi and Hutu over the past century is one in which conventional ethnic roles were continually manipulated, fuelling hostility and making recurring mass violence all but inevitable (Wood 200164). Colonization and conquest helped fuel the already intense ethnic conflict between the Tu tsis and Hutus in what is now Rwanda (Healey 2006). Traditionally, Tutsis had been the rulers over the Hutus. By 1400, Europeans nations began colonizing Africa, and Germany had established control over the region, which possessed Rwanda, in the late 1800s (Healey 2006). In an attempted to administer and control Rwanda, Germany put the Tutsis in a position to govern the Hutus. The case of divide and rule, further perpetrated the hostility between the two ethnic groups (Healey 2006480). After Germanys defeat in WWI, Belgium took control over the region, and continued the tradition of the political and economic differentials between the two tribes (Healey 2006480). compound support shifted toward Hutus in the 1950s and, by Rwandas independence from Belgium in 1962, a new generation of Hutu leaders were able to turn against the Tutsis, expelling several hundred thousand to nigh Burundi and Uganda (Wood 200162). In 1969, two nations were established in the region Burundi, which was dom inated by Tutsis, and Rwanda, which was dominated by Hutus (Healey 2006).The Rwanda jingoistic Front (RPF), led by Tutsi, had been waging an increasingly successful war since its 1990 offensive against the Hutu-dominated government of President Habyarimana (Wood 200160). His government had managed to control ethnic violence in the 1980s and had been pursuing power-sharing talks with the RPF that culminated in the August 1993 Arusha Accords (Wood 200160). At the same time, though, he had also cracked down on political opponents, including moderate Hutus, and had begun to incite violence against Tutsis (Wood 200160). An October 1993 Tutsi military coup against the predominantly Hutu government of neighboring Burundi heightened paranoia among Rwandan Hutus (Wood 200160). Up to and during the April-July 1994 genocide, the RPF continued to take territory away from government troops and finally ousted the government (Wood 200160). Hutu militia (known as the Interahamwe originally a gove rnment-sponsored youth movement became an armed anti-Tutsi force in the early 1990s) hunt down Tutsis and moderate Hutus (Wood 200160). The Interahamwe ideology behind the government supported genocide painted Tutsis as an invading force from the north. This inaccurate caricature was built by colonial rulers who favoured the Tutsis as natural born leaders, racially headmaster to Hutus, and imposed ethnic identity cards, thereby aggravating a tightly controlled political system and an economically interdependent society (Wood 200172).Officials of the authoritarian regime of President Juvenal Habyarimana, felt as if their power was diminishing so they used their monopoly of media to create a finely tuned propaganda machine that played on Hutu fears of the former Tutsi elite and purveyed false, versions of the history of relations between the two groups (Snyder and Ballentine 199630). In April 1994, the Hutu official group unleashed militias trained in the techniques of genocide. At the same time, Radio-T6levision Libre des Mille Collines, a pseudo-private station established by Habyarimanas wife, announced that Tutsi rebels were about to rise up and kill Hutu, and consequently that all Hutu should join the militias in a campaign of preventive killing (Snyder and Ballentine 199630).Unlike Bosnia, where ethnic cleansing dragged on for several years, the genocidal frenzy in Rwanda lasted about three months (Wood 200160). Exhorted by government-sponsored hate broadcasts and leaflets, and often led by officials, many Hutus turned on their Tutsi neighbors with a vengeance. For the most part, Hutu mobs had free reign to shoot, hack, and beat to death men, women, and children hiding in their homes, churches, hospitals, and even orphanages (Wood 200161). Many Tutsi women were raped before being killed and many children, as a means of degrading and terrorizing Tutsi communities. Interahamwe leaders carefully planned the genocide, provided weapons, compiled lists of impo rtant Tutsis, and went to each commune to ensure that killings were thoroughly carried out (Wood 200161).The ideology behind Rwandas genocide evolved amidst harsh conditions of poverty, arable land scarcity, and income inequity (Wood 200164). Theories of racial struggles and hierarchy evoke during the time of economic struggle. In the mid 1980s the price of drinking chocolate dropped (Hintjens 1999). The export of coffee and tea has been important in the region (Healey 2006). As a result of the economic drop, the search began for a scapegoat and the decline became another reason for genocide. In Rwanda conspiracy theories and myths were used to justify genocide. In an impoverished ethnocratic state like Rwanda, ethnicity is also the ruling principle of economic and social differentiation, with ethnic groups then forced to confront each other in the process of competition for material and social resources (Markakis 1993, 236). Such demography-linked pressures as shrinking farm siz e (an average of less than 1 hectare) and high fertility rates (with a population doubling time of under 20 years and a young population age structure), as well as a stagnant economy, helped increase tensions between Rwandas 7.8 million Hutus and Tutsis (Wood 200164). Nationalism in effect attempts to squeeze an idealized grouping of otherwise disparate people into a territorially defined state (Agnew and Corbridge 1995). Ethnic segregation through the division of artificially bounded political units becomes a requirement for the preservation of a groups threatened identity and thus a matter of life and death. (Wood 200163).Comparative AnalyzeIn both Rwanda and Bosnia, the genocides have been part of an overall socio-economic collapse that has left its perpetrators financially much worse off than they were before. Genocidists justified their actions through an ideological than an economic view of national greatness, while exploiting difficult living conditions to scapegoat minoriti es (Wood 200164). In addition, they initiate genocidal measures in peripheral areas of the redefined living space some of the most brutal violence took place in the rural peripheries of northern and eastern Bosnia, eastern Croatia, northwestern United States Rwanda, and eastern Congo (Wood 200164). At the same time, genocidists can go to great lengths to crush heterogeneous and thus politically suspect enclaves within the cultural core of an endlessly purifying homeland (Wood 200165).In both Bosnia and Rwanda, the fighter aircraft ethnic groups speak the same language and most Tutsis and Hutus even belong to the same religion. Political leaders in both areas exaggerated perceive ethnic differences and old grievances (Wood 200165). They also manipulated violence-inciting propaganda, such as broadcasts by Rwandas notorious Radio Mille Collines describing Tutsis as cockroaches (Wood 200165).While not the grand territorially defined strategy that it was in Bosnia, ethnic cleansing wa s also the goal of Rwandan genocidists. In Rwanda the mechanics of ethnic cleansing were simpler than in Bosnia. Tutsis and some moderate Hutus were killed on the spot or rounded up (either encouraged or forced) in convenient locales, usually church and school compounds, and then massacred by the thousands (Wood 200168). besides like Bosnia and other twentieth century genocides, ethnic cleansing could not be contained within Rwanda (Wood 200168).Bosnia and Rwanda, two radically different geographic contexts, are testimony to how dormant ethnic mistrust and fear can be manipulated into a swift genocidal eruption (Wood 200172). In an increasingly heterogeneous world, genocide will remain a fundamental international security threat. (Wood 200172). key to the process of the Bosnian war is the concept of ethnonationalism. The Bosnian war arose out of the collapse of totalitarian control of territory producing a political rescind that, in turn, exposes a deep-rooted rivalry between ethn ic groups leading to a struggle for control of territory ending in an attempt at violent resolution (Slack Doyon 2001140).Conclusion

Impact of Social and Sexual Changes on Art

Impact of Social and Sexual Changes on cheatHair has handed-downly been cited as a discernibly womanly facial expression of wind up activity and beauty, an aesthetic composition that exacerbates a wo humans force to attract members of the opposite sex while acting as a ocular demarcation business amongst the young-begetting(prenominal) womanish person divides. Conversely, the position that men often protrude to lose their coppersbreadth during the middle st ripens of their biography adds further mystique to the superpower of pistillate fuzzsbreadth in popular horse opera s line of longitudeping point.Like her sexual activity, a womans tomentum is unrelenting burning bright like the womanish passion that has so uncolonized male cheatists for centuries. Symbolic every(prenominal)y, the difference between male and effeminate fuzz has been ephemeral versus eternal short lived as opposed to everlasting, a fantasize constructed entirely in tandem with a lac k of knowledge or even interest in distaff sex within reason and tasty circles in the medieval.The nonion of young-bearing(prenominal) person cop manoeuvreing unneurotic with her sexual urge as a tool to make a hoax of men was set-back cemented machinationistically during the ancient era, where Greek mythologys about farthest-famed index of the power of seduction of female pilus, the Gorgon medusoid, stands as a exemplar to all men to bew ar the hidden power of a comely woman. The punishment inflicted upon Medusa by the Goddess Athena because of her famous beauty and catch up with was to transform her sensual bull into a nest of snakes for mortal man to even date at her would cast him, quite literally, into st unrivaled.With such(prenominal)(prenominal) a powerful, traditional starting point, it is little wonder that the let out of women, hair, art and beau monde would continue a large a broadly standardised pattern for so many years, where stereotypically beautiful women were seen by men as constituting the front eminence of the current pagan and sexual war an object to be simultaneously admired and fe bed. However, according to James Kirwan (199973), it is non female sexual practice which is poisonous barely rather male desire for that beauty.The passion of the l e trulyplace is non extinguished by the sight or touch of any luggage compartment, for what he truly desires and unkno vaporizely suffers is the splendour of God shining through the corpse. It is a desire like that of Narcissus that puke never be satisfied.Within the specifically subjective realms of art and opthalmic art, female hair has a long history of conforming to the accepted photograph of the compliant, recipient woman cod to the pervasive, dominant nature of men in art and ships company. Until the second one-half of the 20th century women had perish so accustomed to consumeing their knowledge base through the eyes of men that they had lost si ght of the individuality of women as a separate gender and as singular, autonomous human beings. notwithstanding subsequently the 1960s, visual art and aesthetics became to a keener extent and more than interested in the imagines of the starting signal wave of feminism, continuing along to a greater extent radical, left wing tenors with the introduction of the second wave during the 1970s. Women were emb prevaild within the dainty fellowship and boost to vent and express their sentiments regarding the suppression of the womanish in popular flori ending. As womens rightist critic Lucy Lippard (1980352) dilate, the dead on target power of womens liberationist art was, logically, in the polar opposite visualize that it portrayed of un slipd orderlinesss originative achievements. womens rightist method and theories take a shit instead offered a socially interested selection to the increasingly mechanised evolution of art most art. The 1970s readiness not cast off been pluralist at all if women had not emerged during the decade to allege the multi coloured threads of female experience into the male fabric of ripe art.Moreover, women began to budge their come outance for the first time in direct take issue at the shackles of uniformity that male cabaret had put upon them and hair was at the centre of the re upchucking of the image of femininity in the westernmost. The more radical, younger women changed their clothes, re adapted their attitudes and clipping their hair in line with the more liberal males of the period who did likewise and grew their hair as a signal of their refusal to conform.The dissertation aims to examine how traditional social and sexual mores have changed in recent times in order to detail what this heart and soul for the visual artistic club, in finicky the consequences for female artists in the turn on of post innovativeity. In light of the obvious split in feminist art and culture that has been witne ssed since the sixties, the dissertation will necessarily be dual-lane into four main sections.The first chapter will provide an compend and exposition of the broader socio political framework of present-day(a) female sex activity so as to provide a better understanding of the power of maidenly symbolisation in a male dominated culture. The second chapter will reflection at the history of female hair and portrayals of female sex over the broader history of art the third chapter examines forward-looking visual art and culture paying particular attention to the use of hair as a medium for communicating with the spectator. The fourth chapter will analyse outsider arts views of female sexuality and hair, as defined by technology and race respectively. A conclusion will be sought only after taking into account from each one of the above headerings as nearly as the necessary citations that must be employed to back up supposition with example along the way. Contemporary Femal e Sexuality in institutionalize Modern SocietyFemale subversion in cultural affairs has led to womans alienation in the creative initiation with the solution that her sexuality has only very recently been see to ited beta enough to be the breathing in behind a growing body of academic literature. While feminism in the 1970s saw to it that gay women were represented in culture and art as much as heterosexual person women, the movement of lesbians into the avant garde community only served to act as a dividing line between unbent and gay women whereby many heterosexual female artists were seen as traitors to their own sex. new popular works of art and literature have sought to re introduce complexity into an area where theories about the nature of sexual liberty, fabricate largely by men, had become overtly simplistic. The most extreme exponent of the contemporary debate about female sexuality comes from Paris curator for Conceptual nontextual matter, Catherine Millet and h er 2002 memoirs, The Sexual Life of Catherine M. In an interview with The Observer (200213) newspaper, the French art critic notes thatSexual mores have evolved recently nevertheless around sexual practices are only tolerated if they are kept hidden. I look forward to a democratisation of sexuality where anyone can reveal their true nature without suffering socially.Women in Western society have become more independent, assertive and culturally aggressive during the past twenty v years so that female sexuality, in 2005, although still a payoff in transition, is a force to be reckoned with inside of the male corridors of artistic influence. Yet contemporary feminist art is an amalgamation and result of the prejudices and taboos that went in the lead it it is, therefore a symptom of post modernity the culture that defines it egotism as the generation after the initial social liberation of the sixties implicitly and intrinsically consorted to both gender and sexuality. As Christ opher Reed (1997276) implies, feminism was the catalyst for the widespread disassociation that is at the root of post modern radicals ground discriminateing view of sexuality.From the outset, postmodernism dislodged the wedge that mainstream modernism had driven between art and life feminists, in particular, questioned the way the anti authoritarian empty talk of postmodernism seemed to become itself a form of cultural authority.However, although it is true that women play a far more integral role than they did barley two or three generations beforehand, modernity has not constituted a complete break with the past. Modern art, as a direct relation of post-modern society, remains a sphere still largely controlled by men. What it has done is to ask questions where antecedently only traditional lines of argument were sought. In this way it can viewed as a series of separate branches that issued from the same initial tree creating seedlings of avant garde, outline art, conceptual art, minimalist art and pop art to name but the most famous few.The sum of the legacy of the schism that occurred in society after the residue of the minor cultural revolution of the sixties had settled was a general approval of art as inversion that what was antecedently long was short, that what was previously deemed as beautiful was altered until it became ugly until, paradoxically, it was in the long run seen as beautiful once again. According to Donald Kuspit (artnet.com first viewed 13 kinfolk 2005), modern and post modern art is obsessed with untoward images of sexuality as a source of constantly finding ways to touch the barriers of societys rigid attitude towards sexuality and the material form.The treatment of (the body) as the be all and end all of existence, and the only thing at game in a relationship is the source of modern arts perversion. It extends to a preoccupation with the body of the work of the art itself, which likewise becomes the object of perverse f ormal acts.Postmodernism, therefore, implies rapidly increasing parity between men and women in all spheres of western culture best viewed in the sense of a blurring of the traditional boundaries of sexuality as opposed to a complete merger. At this point it should be noted that, in the same way that it was whitened males that dominated western art, so the feminists who influenced the first stages of avant garde art were predominantly white, enlightened and middle to upper class. The issue of race and religion is equally as significant in the discussion of feminism as it is within an analysis of society at large cliques and hierarchies are a necessary by product of modern civilisation and their presence (and influence) should come as no surprise to basic students of sociology. Hair, every bit as much as skin colour, is a gross dividing line between the races and in the West the image of the Caucasian variety of female hair as a symbol of womens sexuality has resulted in a womans m ovement that is fractured and splintered, more so given the brevity of the ideology as a whole.The essential link between culture and art, as s good as politics and art means that nothing establishd during the early years of feminism was out of the make water of politicisation and none of it would have been make were it not for the wider advent of post modern society. Or, as Gombrich (198611) puts it not all art is concerned with visual uncovering . With the backdrop to the arrival of feminist sexuality and art in place, an rating of how one of the most potent symbols of womanly sexuality was used as a tool of womans subordination in art in the past must now be attempted.Female Hair, Sexuality and Symbolism in the History of Visual ArtAs already outlined, the question of womens hair and artistic expression is deep rooted in all civilisations. As well as the Greek and Roman equations of hair with dormant female sexuality, the pre Raphaelite artists also promulgated the view of powder-puff hair as sexy conqueror of weak male spirits. Late nineteenth and early twentieth century delineations go on to expand on the association of the snakes or ringlets of the Gorgons interrogative with male fear of female genitalia the reversal of roles whereby the sinuous hairs of Medusa were inverted to symbolise the male phallic icon of power of women and nature. These notions were underlined by Freuds analysis that saw the intricate waves of classical female hair as symbolic of female metamorphosis and change characterised by the uniquely female ability to transcend gender. According to Meghan Edwards (victorianweb.org first viewed 15 September 2005), the continent and Romantic image of the female using her hair to devour male libido was a collective and conscious manifestation of fear in blue(a) society, one that was transmitted from the ancient period through to the advent of modern visual art.The myth of women who carry in their femininity a grand vagina with te eth or who have embedded in their being a serpent or snake with the power to castrate took root long before Rossettis Lady Lilith but became increasingly unambiguous, bizarrely personalized, and widespread among the Symbolist poets and painters by the end of the nineteenth century. Visual and psychoanalytic connections between hair and serpents become increasingly explicit in Fernand Khnopffs The Blood of the Medusa, Franz von Stucks Fatality, and Edvard Munchs Vampire, wherein we see the complexity and ambiguousness that infused the imagery of prior artists like the Rossettis, Waterhouse, Tennyson, and many differents give way to an unrestrained fear and pampering in the grotesque.Rossettis Regina Cordium (Queen of Hearts), which he painted in 1860, began a period of change in artistic perspective on female hair, where it was accented as a means to communicate a womans ultimate fragility and dependency on man the first realisation of her sexuality as the conformation of mans a nnihilation and self destruction. Pollock (1992132) notes how, her hair is loose, a decent and significative sign of allowed disorder, conventionally a sign of womans sexuality.It is of course significant that closely all of the most artistic and visual instances of female hair in painting were created by men. Many male artists, such as Manet, whos capital of Washington (1863 5) stands as the most obvious popular example, were non apologetic in damage of their bourgeois fascination with lower class women who were able to fulfil the well to do gentlemans most liberal carnal desires. As the prism through which both men and women viewed societys accepted ideal of the female form, these works of art (especially significant in the days before photography and other twentieth century means of visual communication) constituted the only truth that women knew.Artists of the sagacity such as Jean Baptiste Greuze, whos Broken Mirror (1773) charts the social endeavor of sexually experienced yet single young woman, as well as High Victorian painters like William Holman Hunt, whos The Awakening Conscience (1853) details the plight and unique dilemma of a kept woman, all converged to create the prevailing image of female sexuality that remained the staple diet of western art for much of the twentieth century a smouldering power that could be easily sedated by the socio political power of man. As Judy moolah and Edward Lucie Smith (199988) testify, the fallen woman was the most popular portrayal of female sexuality for many of the male artists who dominated the pre twentieth century artistic arena with creators highlighting her essential weakness with a minimal visual emotional connection.She is the one who has no way out, and the painter contemplates her dilemma with a sort of repressed sadism. With each one of these works one feels a conflict of intention. The artist, will ostensibly sympathising with the plight of his female subjects, in fact adores their suffering, a nd expects the earreach to do so as well.Where hair was employed as a tool to quotation female sexuality, it was used to derisory and disparaging take, as witnessed in the 1934 sculpture by Ren Magritte entitled, Le Viol (The Rape), which transforms a mould of a womans torso into a distorted image of her face her breasts are make into eyes, the hair covering her genitals becomes the mouth, while locks of farinaceous crinkly hair protrude from the neck, conforming to the male stereotype of female hair as an instantly recognisable feature of her fertile sexuality.Clearly, female artists, although very much in the minority were by no means disused and painters such as Louise Marie Elizabeth Vige Lebrun, Rosalba Carriera and Angela Kauffman are but three of a long history of richly talented women artists who sayed the intellectual and artistic communities the soft side of female sexuality, beyond the narrow conceptual borders imposed by man. However, in relation to the issue of hair as a vehicle through which to transport female sexuality to the viewer, few of these artists, male or female, made substantial in roads into a deeper philosophical exploration.It is chief(prenominal) to note the significant socio economic shift that beset Europe and the unify States after the end of the Great War in 1918. Because of their contribution to the travail force, in addition to the nascent political bodies such as the Womens convey (founded in 1915) and the Suffragette Movement, females in the West were for the first time able to exist, albeit nominally at first, outside of the control of a patriarch.Gradually at first, more completely after the end of the Second World War in 1945, women were able to embrace independency, which necessarily brought with it tremendous consequences for the artistic community. Whereas women artists previously had to cosset to male taste in order to sell as well as fund their work, women artists of the second half of the twentieth c entury were more able to create for the sake of creation as opposed to as a means to fit into male structured society. As Anne Sheppard (198797) details, the significance of the release of the socio economic weights of expectation inherently means that essence of the artistic endeavour must change.Among an audiences expectations of a work of art are expectations concerned with artistic forms and conventions. The Greeks of the fifth century BC would expect a let loose in a tragedy. Shakespeares contemporaries would expect a Fool in a comedy. Mozarts contemporaries would expect harpsichord music to be contend with trills and grace notes. Giottos contemporaries would expect saints to be painted with haloes.As a broad rule of all artistic behaviour, artists had traditionally been bound by the expectations of the paying audience. Thus, the revolution concerning female sexuality and the way in which she has been visually portrayed came via economic emancipation first. Attention must no w be turned to instances of female hair as a means of expression of sexuality in modern visual culture after the creative liberation of women.Female Hair as a Medium in Modern Visual CultureThe above background to the advent of the age of modernity, and of the arrival and acceptance of women within the upper echelons of the artistic community in the West, highlights the male dominated nature of notions of female sexuality. Hair was expressed as one of the most seductive of all of womans charms an intricate part of the component that was created by God solely for mans destruction.Even when woman is portrayed as life giver in art, the act is more often than not displayed as ugly and confrontational, as Jonathan Wallers Mother No. 27 (1996) testifies. Indeed, the ongoing negative reaction of museums to child birth and maternity reveals more about the still dominant attitudes of females as sex objects as opposed to life enablers as destructive rather than constructive, which is to th e evil of the art community as a whole.It naturally follows that while the majority of the (male) art community continued to associate flowing female hair with her ubiquitous sexuality, women artists tied to the first and second waves of the international feminists movement would regard to convey a hidden, option image. One of the most universally celebrated of twentieth century female artists was without doubt Frida Kahlo. She is famous not only for the wealth of talent and proficiency that was at her disposal but also for her independent, analytical and honest view of women, given added significance due to her prominent position in Mexican society. Her self portrait with cropped hair (1940), which is housed in New Yorks Museum of Modern Art constituted the first mainstream attempt to castrate the pervasive female sexuality as characterised by the iconography of ubiquitous long hair. It should be recalled that this painting was created at a time when uniformity of sexuality was the cultural norm women were meant to have long hair, which meant that the subtle question Kahlo posed to women who viewed it was magnified all the more. cardinal decades later, at the dawn of the watershed decade of the 1960s, the impact of the famous Beatles haircut, first styled and professionally photographed by Astrid Kircherr (who exhibits the cropped blonde look in a self photograph in 1961) was universal within western culture and was far-famed for its inversion of traditional sexual roles. As, during the sixties, young men grew their hair longish so young women were more inclined to cut their own, highlighting a deliberate cultural means of rebelling against the tired sexual mores of the time.Gay women, in particular, began to associate short hair with sexual freedom. Although contemporary Western society views the stereotypical butch woman with short hair as characteristic of the lesbian underworld, it was indeed a bold move in the sixties and seventies for a woman to c ut her hair in such a symbolic gesture. In this way, women such as the avant garde artist consonance Hammond (who famously came out via cutting her previously long, fair(prenominal) hair in New York in 1974) were using their own hair and body image as their art, to make a statement that, visually and aesthetically, woman was no longer the lens through which man peered at his own quite a little of beauty.As per all cultural de constructions of popular mythology, the actual look of a womans hair was the only the first building block of conformity to be removed in the first phase of feminist expression. Harmony Hammond, furthermore, was one of the most prominent users of hair as an artistic material. Whereby hair was previously used to express female sexuality via depicting or painting the length, texture and contours, Hammond and the burgeoning abstract sect of North American artists sought to desegregate hair into their work to bring attention to the social and sexual constraints by which we all live. She used her own hair in the construction of a hair blanket as well as utilising animal hair to make hair bags. Hammond used materials such as hemp, straw, thread and braids to reference the equation of feminine hair with sexuality throughout her body of work. As Paul Eli Ivey (queerculturalcenter.org first viewed 21 September 2005) explains, Harmony Hammond exhibited the greatest ability to manoeuvre female hair away from its association with beautiful heterosexual objects of male desire, combining ideology and aesthetics in a discernibly feminist manner.In the 1990s, Hammond combined latex rubber with her own hair and the hair of her daughter or friends, to suggest landscapes of gendered and sexualised bodies. The braid and the pony tail also took on a life of their own as personified characters the braid relating to an consolidation of mind, body, and spirit the stylised ponytail becoming a flirtatious, sexualised persona.Her sculpture, Speaking Braids, pl ays on the difficultness in forming a singular feminine constituent in such a diverse culture, where lesbian and bisexual women still feel cut off from the socially grateful heterosexual females of the twenty first century. The head is disconnected from the body, mirroring societys view of woman as an object of passive desire. The most blowing element is the vomit of light brown braids that extend from the pitiless face of the head of the woman, designed to engage the audience in contemporary thought about the disembodied cries of women to whom marriage and conformity are not available. Hair was therefore used to point out essential good and ideological divisions within female sexuality and, according to Joan Smith (1997165), the adversity of society to recognise the fundamental differences amongst the various sectors of the broader female sex has been to the detriment of feminism and, ultimately, western culture as a whole.Women are expect to be different from men but the sa me as each other. While there is general agreement that women are unlike men in numerous ill defined ways, there is enormous hesitancy to accept the idea that women might not be broadly similar to each other. The issue that exposes this distinction most sharply is motherhood, so that a woman who chooses not to give birth is characterised not just as unnatural but as a traitor to her sex. Mille Wilson is another feminist artist who has used the symbolism of hair to state a reasoned view on female sexuality by employing it as the central theme of panorama. In her ambitious visual art project, The Museum of Lesbian Dreams (1990 2), Wilson speaks to her audience through the fetish surrogates of the typical view of the female body in this instance using female hair in the form of a series of womens wigs to underline the essential similarity of heterosexual and homosexual womans dreams and deepest aesthetic desires, relying on the long, luxurious manes of the artificial hair to symbo lise the traditional notion of hair as standard bearer of vivacious feminine sexuality. As Whitney Chadwick (2002396) notes in her expansive study of women, art and society her work articulates the historical inaccuracy, often absurdity, of social constructions of lesbianism within dominant heterosexual discourses. such(prenominal) discursive formations often to work to fix identity within, and outside, normative paradigms.It should be apparent that much of the artistic arguments pertaining to female hair and sexuality emanate from the perspective of the historical outsiders, namely gay and bisexual women. All great art is created from passion and in terms of damaging sexual stereotyping relating to female icons of beauty the avant garde art community has felt the greatest reason to voice concerns over the prevailing attitude of society towards womens sexuality. However, the real outsiders within the broader feminine artistic debate need to be analysed in order to stress how hair is culturally understood as one of the most important foundations of mainstream notions of female sexuality.Female Hair and Visual Expressions of Sexuality from the Perspective of foreigner ArtBeyond the set boundaries inherent within sculpture and painting, photography and performance art have been the most in all likelihood to make a physical statement pertaining to female sexuality. Whereas most other forms of modern visual art minimalism, conceptual art and pop art concentrate on extracting the content rather than moving towards a lifelike representation of the female body, photography recreates the human form as an artistic facsimile.It must be noted that photography and visual performance art highlight the issue of female sexuality via concentrating on the entirety of the hair on her body as opposed to detailing only the stereotypical view of female hair emanating from her head. Indeed, no examination of the subject of sexuality and hair can be complete without an analysi s of the art worlds view of female body hair per se, which is culturally speaking hidden, shaved and moulded in a far more stringent and severe way than any style of hair upon the head, a fact that Germaine Greer (199920) expands upon.Women with too much (i.e. any) body hair are expected to struggle daily with depilatories of all kinds in order to appear hairless. Bleaching moustaches, waxing legs and plucking eyebrows absorb hundreds of woman hours.Feminist adherents in the art world have inevitably challenged the claustrophobic views of society towards female body hair with pictures created to shock and induce academic debate about a needlessly taboo topic. Sally Mann made a series of explicit photographs of herself and her daughters during the 1990s, including ignoble (1997), a photograph that focuses the viewer upon the dense vaginal hair of the artist, whose legs are spread open in a bathtub with the subtext of highlighting how women enjoy exactly the same bodily functions as men, however much society shuts itself off to biological reality. Moreover, by making the camera concentrate on the nexus of pubic hair the spectator is likewise advised to consider the cultural reasons as to why women must shave every other part of their body where hair grows naturally.The most shocking and moving of all photographic imagery involving female hair tied to the notion of sexuality is Hannah Wilkes self image taken during her demise from cancer, the disease having robbed her of her hair though not of her female organs, as the new photo in a wheelchair, selected from the Intra Venus collection (1992 3), graphically illustrates. The power of the visual focus is centred upon the artists wish to show how hair does not make a woman feminine and that the human spirit is more powerful than any facet of the physical body.Visual art enactment reserves the greatest power of persuasion and audience manipulation. Post Porn Modernism, a performance art show that was exhibited in New York in the late 1980s, is the most obvious example of a visual exposition of contemporary female sexuality devised to shock the audience, concentrating in this instance, on the artists pubic hair and genitalia. Playing on the historical artistic obsession with the female whore, Rebecca Schneider (1996161) declares that Post Porn Modernism was still another way to de mystify the myth of female sexuality, in particular highlighting the fragile nature of consumer capitalism where the prostitute is both buyer and seller merged into one.In theory, the real live Prostitute Annie splosh lay at the threshold of the impasse between true and false, visible and invisible, nature and culture as if in the eye of a storm. As any whore is given to be in this culture she is a mistake, an aberration, a hoax a show and a sham made of lipstick, mascara, fake beauty marks, hair and black lace.However, the art most likely to capture the absurdity of the persistent link between granted notions of female hair personifying womans innate sexuality is that which is created by African women artists who have to sweep strict racial as well as gender and sexuality lines in order to portray women from their culture in an aesthetically acceptable light. These women are the true outsiders of Western artistic expression.Leslie Rabine (1998127), for example, declares that western slave culture and economics invested the arena of skin, hair and make up with political struggle, with the result that African women born in the West have had their body image dictated by colour and gender, which creates a kind of schizophrenic effect on the black women to the extent that the naturally curly, short African hair has been usurped in fashion by wigs, extensions and artificially straight hair.Typically, it has been left to the avant garde community to ignite the backlash against the marginalisation of black female sexuality. Alison Saar, daughter of African American feminist artist Betye Saar acce nted the widely accepted view of natural black female hair as the cultural antithesis to feminine sexuality in her sculpture entitled, Chaos in the Kitchen (1998). Saar used coarse iron wiring to mimic indigenous African hair, on top of a female face that has been deliberately denied eyes to highlight the cultural blind spot that black women have towards their own vision of female beauty. She means to state that, in attempting to copy white mans image of feminine beauty via hair, black women have only succeeded in hollowing out their historical selves.African American artist and photographer Rene Cox made an even more challenging alternative to the prevailing paradigms pertaining to female sexuality and race when she made, Yo Mama (1993). The photograph places the artist standing up naked except for Western high heels the stereotypical twin symbol of hair as the autograph of heterosexual female sexuality. The hair on he